Large Passenger Liners - RMS Titanic, 1911
Edited by David Barth, 7 December 2008
from page 92 of the November 2008 issue of Wired, by Cliff Kuang and
from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
The RMS Titanic was an Olympic-class passenger liner owned by the White Star Line and built at the Harland and
Wolff shipyard in Belfast. On the night of 14 April 1912, during her maiden voyage, Titanic hit an iceberg, and
sank two hours and forty minutes later, early on 15 April 1912. At the time she was the largest passenger steamship
in the world.
The sinking resulted in the deaths of over 1,500 people, making it one of the deadliest peacetime maritime disasters
in history. The high casualty rate was due in part to the fact that, while compliant with the regulations of the time,
the ship did not carry enough lifeboats for everyone aboard. The ship had a total lifeboat capacity of 1,178 persons
even though her maximum capacity was 3,547 people. A disproportionate number of men died also, due to the women and
children first protocol which was followed.
The Titanic used some of the most advanced technology available at the time and was, after the sinking, popularly
believed to have been described as "unsinkable". It was a great shock to many that, despite the extensive safety
features and experienced crew, the Titanic sank. The media frenzy about Titanic's famous victims, the legends about
the sinking, the resulting changes to maritime law, and the discovery of the wreck have contributed to the interest
in and fame of the Titanic that continues to this day.
The Titanic was a White Star Line ocean liner, built at the Harland and Wolff shipyard in Belfast, and designed to
compete with the rival Cunard Line's Lusitania and Mauretania. The Titanic, along with her Olympic-class sisters, the
Olympic and the soon to be built Britannic, were intended to be the largest, most luxurious ships ever to operate. The
designers were William Pirrie, a director of both Harland and Wolff and White Star, naval architect Thomas Andrews,
Harland and Wolff's construction manager and head of their design department, and Alexander Carlisle, the shipyard's
chief draughtsman and general manager.
Construction of RMS Titanic, funded by the American J.P. Morgan and his International Mercantile Marine Co., began on
31 March, 1909. Titanic's hull was launched on 31 May 1911, and her outfitting was completed by 31 March the following
year.
Titanic was 882 ft 9 in (269.1 m) long and 92 ft 6 in (28.2 m) wide, with a gross register tonnage of 46,328 tons and a
height from the water line to the boat deck of 59 feet (18 m). She contained two reciprocating four-cylinder,
triple-expansion, inverted steam engines and one low-pressure Parsons turbine, which powered three propellers.
There were 29 boilers fired by 159 coal burning furnaces that made possible a top speed of 23 knots (43 km/h).
Only three of the four 62-foot (19 m) funnels were functional; the fourth, which served only as a vent, was added
to make the ship look more impressive. The ship could carry a total of 3,547 passengers and crew and, because she
carried mail, her name was given the prefix RMS (Royal Mail Steamer) as well as SS (Steam Ship).
Features
In her time, Titanic surpassed all rivals in luxury and opulence. She offered the following:
- an on-board swimming pool
- a gymnasium
- a Turkish bath
- libraries in both the first and second-class
- a squash court
First-class common rooms were adorned with elaborate wood panelling, expensive furniture and other decorations. In
addition, the Cafe Parisien offered cuisine for the first-class passengers, with a sunlit veranda fitted with trellis
decorations.
The ship incorporated technologically advanced features for the period. She had an extensive electrical subsystem with
steam-powered generators and ship-wide electrical wiring feeding electric lights. She also boasted two Marconi radios,
including a powerful 1,500-watt set manned by operators who worked in shifts, allowing constant contact and the
transmission of many passenger messages.
Lifeboats
At the design stage Carlisle suggested that Titanic use a new, larger type of davit which could give the ship the
potential to carry 48 lifeboats; this would have provided enough places for everyone on board, but not enough for the
number of people the ship could carry. However, the White Star Line, while agreeing to the larger davits, decided that
only 16 wooden lifeboats (16 being the minimum allowed by the board or trade, based on the Titanic's projected tonnage)
would be carried (there were also four folding lifeboats, called collapsibles), which could accommodate only 52% of the
people aboard. At the time, the Board of Trade's regulations stated that British vessels over 10,000 tons must carry 16
lifeboats with a capacity of 5,500 cubic feet, plus enough capacity in rafts and floats for 75% (or 50% in case of a
vessel with watertight bulkheads) of that in the lifeboats. Therefore, the White Star Line actually provided more
lifeboat accommodation than was legally required. The regulations made no extra provision for larger ships because they
had not been changed since 1894, when the largest passenger ship under consideration was only 13,000 tons, and because
of the expected difficulty in getting away a greater number than 16 boats in any emergency. Carlisle told the official
inquiry that he had discussed the matter with J. Bruce Ismay, White Star's Managing Director, but in his evidence Ismay
denied that he had ever heard of this, nor did he recollect noticing such provision in the plans of the ship he had
inspected.
Comparisons with the Olympic
The Titanic closely resembled her older sister Olympic. Although she enclosed more space and therefore had a larger
gross register tonnage, the hull was almost the same length as the Olympic. However, there were a few differences. Two
of the most noticeable were that half of the Titanic's forward promenade A-Deck (below the boat deck) was enclosed
against outside weather, and her B-Deck configuration was different from the Olympic. The Titanic had a speciality
restaurant called Cafe Parisien, a feature that the Olympic did not have until 1913. Some of the flaws found on the
Olympic, such as the creaking of the aft expansion joint, were corrected on the Titanic. The skid lights that provided
natural illumination on A-deck were round; while on Olympic they were oval. The Titanic's wheelhouse was made narrower
and longer than the Olympic's. These, and other modifications, made the Titanic 1,004 gross register tons larger than
the Olympic and thus the largest active ship in the world during her maiden voyage in April 1912.
Ship history
The ship began her maiden voyage from Southampton, England, bound for New York City, New York, on Wednesday, 10 April
1912, with Captain Edward J. Smith in command. As the Titanic left her berth, her wake caused the liner New York, which
was docked nearby, to break away from her moorings, whereupon she was drawn dangerously close (about four feet) to the
Titanic before a tugboat towed the New York away. The near accident delayed departure for one hour. After crossing the
English Channel, the Titanic stopped at Cherbourg, France, to board additional passengers and stopped again the next day
at Queenstown (known today as Cobh), Ireland. Because harbour facilities at Queenstown were inadequate for a ship of her
size, Titanic had to anchor off-shore, with small boats, known as tenders, ferrying the embarking passengers out to her.
When she finally set out for New York, there were 2,240 people aboard.
John Coffey, a 23 year old crewmember, jumped ship by stowing away on a tender and hid amongst mailbags headed for Cobh.
Coffey stated that the reason for smuggling himself off the liner was that he held a superstition about sailing and
specifically about traveling on the Titanic. However, he later signed on to join the crew of the Mauretania.
On the maiden voyage of the Titanic some of the most prominent people of the day were travelling in first–class.
Some of these included millionaire John Jacob Astor IV and his wife Madeleine Force Astor, industrialist Benjamin
Guggenheim, Macy's owner Isidor Straus and his wife Ida, Denver millionairess Margaret "Molly" Brown, Sir Cosmo
Duff Gordon and his wife couturičre Lucy (Lady Duff-Gordon), George Elkins Widener and his wife Eleanor; cricketer
and businessman John Borland Thayer with his wife Marian and their seventeen-year-old son Jack, journalist William
Thomas Stead, the Countess of Rothes, United States presidential aide Archibald Butt, author and socialite Helen
Churchill Candee, author Jacques Futrelle his wife May and their friends, Broadway producers Henry and Rene Harris
and silent film actress Dorothy Gibson among others. Also travelling in first–class were White Star Line's managing
director J. Bruce Ismay and the ship's builder Thomas Andrews, who was on board to observe any problems and assess
the general performance of the new ship.
Sinking
On the night of Sunday, 14 April, the temperature had dropped to near freezing
and the ocean was calm. The moon was not visible and the sky was clear. Captain Smith, in response to iceberg warnings
received via wireless over the preceding few days, altered the Titanic's course slightly to the south. That Sunday at
13:45, a message from the steamer Amerika warned that large icebergs lay in the Titanic's path, but as Jack Phillips
and Harold Bride, the Marconi wireless radio operators, were employed by Marconi and paid to relay messages to and
from the passengers, they were not focused on relaying such "non-essential" ice messages to the bridge. Later that
evening, another report of numerous large icebergs, this time from the Mesaba, also failed to reach the
bridge.
At 23:40 while sailing about 400 miles south of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, lookouts Fredrick Fleet and Reginald
Lee spotted a large iceberg directly ahead of the ship. Fleet sounded the ship's bell three times and telephoned the
bridge exclaiming, "Iceberg, right ahead!". First Officer Murdoch gave the order "hard-a-starboard", using the
traditional tiller order for an abrupt turn to port (left), and the engines to be put in full reverse (although a
survivor from the engine room testified that, as he recalled, the indicator of the telegraph had moved to "stop",
and only after the impact). A collision was inevitable and the iceberg brushed the ship's starboard side, buckling
the hull in several places and popping out rivets below the waterline over a length of 299 ft (90 m). As seawater
filled the forward compartments, the watertight doors shut. However, while the ship could stay afloat with four
flooded compartments, five were filling with water. The five water-filled compartments weighed down the ship so
that the tops of the forward watertight bulkheads fell below the ship's waterline, allowing water to pour into
additional compartments. Captain Smith, alerted by the jolt of the impact, arrived on the bridge and ordered a
full stop. Shortly after midnight on 15 April, following an inspection by the ship's officers and Thomas Andrews,
the lifeboats were ordered to be readied and a distress call was sent out.
A photograph of an iceberg in the vicinity of the RMS Titanic’s sinking was taken on 15 April 1912 by the chief steward of
the liner Prinz Adelbert who stated the berg had red anti-fouling paint of the kind found on the hull from below
Titanic's waterline. Wireless operators Jack Phillips and Harold Bride were busy sending out CQD, the international
distress signal. Several ships responded, including Mount Temple, Frankfurt and Titanic's sister ship, Olympic, but
none was close enough to make it in time. The closest ship to respond was Cunard Line's RMS Carpathia 58 miles
(93 km) away, which could arrive in an estimated four hours—too late to rescue all of Titanic's passengers. The only
land–based location that received the distress call from Titanic was a wireless station at Cape Race,
Newfoundland.
From the bridge, the lights of a nearby ship could be seen off the port side. Not responding to wireless, Fourth
Officer Boxhall and Quartermaster Rowe attempted signalling the ship with a Morse lamp and later with distress rockets,
but the ship never appeared to respond. The SS Californian, which was nearby and stopped for the night because of ice,
also saw lights in the distance. The Californian's wireless was turned off, and the wireless operator had gone to bed
for the night. Just before he went to bed at around 23:00 the Californian's radio operator attempted to warn the Titanic
that there was ice ahead, but he was cut off by an exhausted Jack Phillips, who snapped, "Shut up, shut up, I am busy; I
am working Cape Race". When the Californian's officers first saw the ship, they tried signalling her with their Morse
lamp, but also never appeared to receive a response. Later, they noticed the Titanic's distress signals over the lights
and informed Captain Stanley Lord. Even though there was much discussion about the mysterious ship, which to the
officers on duty appeared to be moving away, the Californian did not wake her wireless operator until
morning.
Lifeboats launched
The first lifeboat launched was Lifeboat 7 on the starboard side with 28 people on board out of a capacity of 65.
It was lowered at 00:27 and not at 00:40 as popularly believed. Lifeboat 5 was launched two to three minutes later.
The Titanic carried 20 lifeboats with a total capacity of 1,178 persons. While not enough to hold all of the passengers
and crew, the Titanic carried more boats than was required by the British Board of Regulations. At the time, the number
of lifeboats required was determined by a ship's gross register tonnage, rather than her human capacity.
The Titanic showed no outward signs of being in imminent danger, and passengers were reluctant to leave the apparent
safety of the ship to board small lifeboats. As a result, most of the boats were launched partially empty; one boat
meant to hold 40 people left the Titanic with only 12 people on board it. With "Women and children first" the imperative
for loading lifeboats, Second Officer Lightoller, who was loading boats on the port side, allowed men to board only if
oarsmen were needed, even if there was room. First Officer Murdoch, who was loading boats on the starboard side, let men
on board if women were absent. As the ship's list increased people started to become nervous, and some lifeboats began
leaving fully loaded. By 02:05, the entire bow was under water, and all the lifeboats, save for two, had been
launched.
Final minutes
Around 02:10, the stern rose out of the water exposing the propellers, and by 02:17 the waterline had reached the boat
deck. The last two lifeboats floated off the deck, one upside down, the other half filled with water. Shortly afterwards,
the forward funnel collapsed, crushing part of the bridge and people in the water. On deck, people were scrambling towards
the stern or jumping overboard in hopes of reaching a lifeboat. The ship's stern slowly rose into the air, and everything
unsecured crashed towards the water. While the stern rose, the electrical system finally failed and the lights went out.
Shortly afterwards, the stress on the hull caused Titanic to break apart between the last two funnels, and the bow went
completely under. The stern righted itself slightly and then rose vertically. After a few moments, at 02:20, this too sank
into the ocean.
Only two of the 18 launched lifeboats rescued people after the ship sank. Lifeboat
4 was close by and picked up five people, two of whom later died. Close to an hour later, lifeboat 14 went back and
rescued four people, one of whom died afterwards. Other people managed to climb onto the lifeboats that floated off
the deck. There were some arguments in some of the other lifeboats about going back, but many survivors were afraid
of being swamped by people trying to climb into the lifeboat or being pulled down by the suction from the sinking
Titanic, though it turned out that there had been very little suction.
As the ship fell into the depths, the two sections behaved very differently. The streamlined bow planed off
approximately 2,000 feet (609 m) below the surface and slowed somewhat, landing relatively gently. The stern
plunged violently to the ocean floor, the hull being torn apart along the way from massive implosions caused by
compression of the air still trapped inside. The stern smashed into the bottom at considerable speed, grinding the
hull deep into the silt.
After steaming under a forced draft for just under four hours, the RMS Carpathia arrived in the area and at 04:10
began rescuing survivors. By 08:30 she picked up the last lifeboat with survivors and left the area at 08:50 bound
for New York.
Aftermath
On 18 April, the Carpathia docked at Pier 54 at Little
West 12th Street in New York with the survivors. It arrived at night and was greeted by thousands of people. The
Titanic had been headed for 20th Street. The Carpathia dropped off the empty Titanic lifeboats at Pier 59, as
property of the White Star Line, before unloading the survivors at Pier 54. Both piers were part of the Chelsea
Piers built to handle luxury liners of the day. As news of the disaster spread, many people were shocked that the
Titanic could sink with such great loss of life despite all of her technological advances. Newspapers were filled
with stories and descriptions of the disaster and were eager to get the latest information. Many charities were set
up to help the victims and their families, many of whom lost their sole breadwinner, or, in the case of third-class
survivors, lost everything they owned. The people of Southampton were deeply affected by the sinking. According to
the Hampshire Chronicle on 20 April 1912, almost 1,000 local families were directly affected. Almost every street
in the Chapel district of the town lost more than one resident and over 500 households lost a member.
| Category |
Number Aboard |
Number Survivors |
Percent Survived |
Number Lost |
Percent Lost |
| First Class |
329 |
199 |
60.5% |
130 |
39.5% |
| Second Class |
285 |
119 |
43.8% |
166 |
56.2% |
| Third Class |
710 |
214 |
24.5% |
536 |
75.5% |
| Crew |
899 |
214 |
23.6% |
685 |
76.4% |
| Total |
2,223 |
706 |
31.9% |
1,517 |
68.1% |
Of a total of 2,223 people aboard the Titanic only 706 survived the disaster and 1,517 perished. The majority of
deaths were caused by hypothermia in the -2 degrees C (28 degrees F) water. Men and members of the lower classes were
less liable to survive. 92 percent of the men perished in second class. Third class passengers fared very badly.
New York Herald front page about the Titanic disaster.Six of the seven children in first class and all of the children
in second class were saved, whereas only a 34 percent were saved in third class. Nearly every first-class woman survived,
compared with 86 percent of those in second class and less than half of those in third class. Over all, only 20 percent
of the men survived. First-class men were four times as likely to survive as second-class men, and twice as likely to
survive as third-class men.
In one case in the third class, a Swedish family lost the mother and four children aged under 10. The father was
waiting for them to arrive at the destination. "Palsson's grief was the most acute of any who visited the offices
of the White Star, but his loss was the greatest. His whole family had been wiped out."
One survivor, stewardess Violet Jessop, who had been on board the RMS Olympic when she collided with HMS Hawke in
1911, went on to survive the sinking of HMHS Britannic in 1916.
Titanic survivors who have recently passed away include Lillian Asplund on 6 May 2006 and Barbara Dainton (nee West)
on 16 October 2007.
Millvina Dean, who was only two months old at the time of the sinking, is the only living survivor of the Titanic.
Although she is over 95 years old, she has remained active in Titanic-related events and lives in Southampton,
England.
There are many stories relating to dogs on the Titanic. Apparently, a passenger released the dogs just before the
ship went down; they were seen running up and down the decks. At least two dogs survived.
Retrieval and burial of the dead
Once the massive loss of life became
clear, White Star Line chartered the cable ship CS Mackay-Bennett from Halifax, Nova Scotia to retrieve bodies.
Three other ships followed in the search, the cable ship Minia, the lighthouse supply ship Montmagny and the sealing
vessel Algerine. Each ship left with embalming supplies, undertakers, and clergy. Of the 333 victims that were
eventually recovered, 328 were retrieved by the Canadian ships and five more by passing North Atlantic steamships.
For some unknown reason, numbers 324 and 325 were unused, and the six passengers buried at sea by the Carpathia also
went unnumbered. In mid-May 1912, over 200 miles (320 km) from the site of the sinking the RMS Oceanic, recovered
three bodies, numbers 331, 332 and 333, who were occupants of Collapsible A, which was swamped in the last moments
of the sinking. Several people managed to reach this lifeboat, although some died during the night. When Fifth
Officer Harold Lowe rescued the survivors of Collapsible A, he left the three dead bodies in the boat: Thomas
Beattie, a first-class passenger, and two crew members, a fireman and a seaman. The bodies were buried at sea from
Oceanic.
The first body recovery ship to reach the site of the sinking, the cable ship CS Mackay-Bennett found so many bodies
that the embalming supplies aboard were quickly exhausted. Health regulations only permitted that embalmed bodies
could be returned to port. Captain Larnder of the Mackay-Bennett and undertakers aboard decided to preserve all bodies
of First Class passengers, justifying their decision by the need to visual identity wealthy men to resolve any disputes
over large estates. As a result the burials at sea were Third Class passengers and crew. Larnder himself claimed that as
a mariner, he would expect to be buried at sea. However complaints about the burials at sea were made by families and
undertakers. Later ships such as Minia found fewer bodies, requiring fewer embalming supplies, and were able to limit
burials at sea to bodies which were too damaged to preserve.
Bodies recovered were preserved to be taken to Halifax, the closest city to the sinking with direct rail and steamship
connections. The Halifax coroner, John Henry Barnstead, developed a detailed system to identify bodies and safeguard
personal possessions. His identification system would later be used to identify victims of the Halifax Explosion in 1917.
Relatives from across North America came to identify and claim bodies. A large temporary morgue was set up in a curling
rink and undertakers were called in from all across Eastern Canada to assist. Some bodies were shipped to be buried in
their hometowns across North America and Europe. About two thirds of the bodies were identified. Unidentified victims
were buried with simple numbers based on the order that the bodies were discovered. The majority of recovered victims,
150 bodies, were buried in three Halifax cemeteries, the largest being Fairview Lawn Cemetery followed by the nearby
Mount Olivet and Baron de Hirsch cemeteries. Much floating wreckage was also recovered with the bodies, many pieces of
which can be seen today in the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic in Halifax.
Memorials
The memorial to the Titanic's engineers in SouthamptonIn many locations there are memorials to the dead of the Titanic.
In Southampton, England a memorial to the engineers of the Titanic may be found in Andrews Park on Above Bar Street.
Opposite the main memorial is a memorial to Wallace Hartley and the other musicians who played on the Titanic. A
memorial to the liner is also located on the grounds of City Hall in Belfast, Ireland.
In the United States there are memorials to the Titanic disaster as well. The Titanic Memorial in Washington, D.C. and
a memorial to Ida Straus at Straus Park in Manhattan, New York are two examples.
On 15 April 2012, the 100th anniversary of the sinking of Titanic is planned to be commemorated around the world. By
that date, the Titanic Quarter in Belfast is planned to have been completed. The area will be regenerated and a
signature memorial project unveiled to celebrate Titanic and her links with Belfast, the city that built the
ship.
Investigations into the RMS Titanic disaster
See also: Changes in safety practices following the RMS Titanic disaster and International Maritime
Organization
Before the survivors even arrived in New York, investigations were being planned to discover what had happened, and
what could be done to prevent a recurrence. The United States Senate initiated an inquiry into the disaster on 19 April
a day after Carpathia arrived in New York.
The chairman of the inquiry, Senator William Alden Smith, wanted to gather accounts from passengers and crew while the
events were still fresh in their minds. Smith also needed to subpoena the British citizens while they were still on
American soil. This prevented all surviving passengers and crew from returning to England before the American inquiry,
which lasted until 25 May.
Lord Mersey was appointed to head the British Board of Trade's inquiry into the disaster. The British inquiry took place
between 2 May and 3 July. Each inquiry took testimony from both passengers and crew of the Titanic, crew members of
Leyland Line's Californian, Captain Arthur Rostron of the Carpathia and other experts.
The investigations found that many safety rules were simply out of date, and new laws were recommended. Numerous safety
improvements for ocean-going vessels were implemented, including improved hull and bulkhead design, access throughout
the ship for egress of passengers, lifeboat requirements, improved life-vest design, the holding of safety drills,
better passenger notification, radio communications laws, etc. The investigators also learned that the Titanic had
sufficient lifeboat space for all first-class passengers, but not for the lower classes. In fact, most third-class, or
steerage, passengers had no idea where the lifeboats were, much less any way of getting up to the higher decks where the
lifeboats were stowed.
SS Californian inquiry
The SS CalifornianBoth inquiries into the disaster found that the Californian and its captain, Stanley Lord, failed to
give proper assistance to the Titanic. Testimony before the inquiry revealed that at 22:10, the Californian observed the
lights of a ship to the south; it was later agreed between Captain Lord and Third Officer Stone (who had relieved Lord of
duty at 22:10) that this was a passenger liner. The Californian warned the ship by radio of the pack ice because of which
the Californian had stopped for the night, but was violently rebuked by Titanic senior wireless operator, Jack Phillips.
At 23:50, the officer had watched this ship's lights flash out, as if the ship had shut down or turned sharply, and that
the port light was now observed. Morse light signals to the ship, upon Lord's order, occurred five times between 23:30
and 01:00, but were not acknowledged. (In testimony, it was stated that the Californian's Morse lamp had a range of a
bout four miles (6 km), so could not have been seen from Titanic.)
Captain Lord had retired at 23:30; however, Second Officer C.V. Groves, now on duty, notified Lord at 01:15 that the
ship had fired a rocket, followed by four more. Lord wanted to know if they were company signals, that is, coloured
flares used for identification. Groves said that he did not know that the rockets were all white. Captain Lord
instructed the crew to continue to signal the other vessel with the Morse lamp, and went back to sleep. Three more
rockets were observed at 1:50 and Groves noted that the ship looked strange in the water, as if she were listing. At
02:15, Lord was notified that the ship could no longer be seen. Lord asked again if the lights had had any colours in
them, and he was informed that they were all white.
The Californian eventually responded. At 05:30, First Officer Groves awakened wireless operator Cyril Evans, informed
him that rockets had been seen during the night, and asked that he try to communicate with any ships. The Frankfurt
notified the operator of the Titanic's loss, Captain Lord was notified, and the ship set out for assistance.
The inquiries found that the Californian was much closer to the Titanic than the 19˝ miles (roughly 31 km) that Captain
Lord had believed and that Lord should have awakened the wireless operator after the rockets were first reported to him,
and thus could have acted to prevent a loss of life.
In 1990, following the discovery of the wreck, the Marine Accident Investigation Branch of the British Department of
Transport re-opened the inquiry to review the the evidence relating to the Californian. Its report of 1992 concluded
that the Californian was further from the Titanic than the earlier British inquiry had found, and that the distress
rockets, but not the Titanic herself, would have been visible from the Californian.
Rediscovery of the Titanic
The idea of
finding the wreck of Titanic, and even raising the ship from the ocean floor, had been around since shortly after the
ship sank. No attempts were successful until 1 September 1985, when a joint American-French expedition, led by Jean-Louis
Michel (Ifremer) and Dr. Robert Ballard (WHOI), located the wreck. It was found at a depth of 2˝ miles, slightly more
than 370 miles (600 km) south-east of Mistaken Point, Newfoundland at 41degrees43'55?N 49degrees56'45?W? / ?41.73194, -49.94583
Coordinates: 41degrees43'55?N 49degrees56'45W / ?41.73194, -49.94583, 13 miles (22 km) from fourth officer Joseph Boxhall's last
position reading where Titanic was originally thought to rest. Ballard noted that his crew had paid out 12,500 ft
(3,800 m) of the submersible's cable at the time of the discovery of the wreck, giving an approximate depth of the
seabed of 12,450 ft. Ifremer, the French partner in the search, records a depth of 3,800 m, an almost exact
equivalent. This approximates to 2? miles, often rounded upwards to 2˝ miles.
Ballard had in 1982 requested funding for the project from the US Navy, but this was provided only on the condition
that the first priority was the search for the sunken US submarines Thresher and Scorpion. Only when these had been
discovered and photographed did the search for Titanic begin.
The most notable discovery the team made was that the ship had split apart, the stern section lying 1,970 feet (600 m)
from the bow section and facing opposite directions. There had been conflicting witness accounts of whether the ship
broke apart or not, and both the American and British inquiries found that the ship sank intact. Up until the discovery
of the wreck, it was generally assumed that the ship did not break apart.
The bow section had struck the ocean floor at a position just under the forepeak, and embedded itself 60 feet (18 m)
into the silt on the ocean floor. Although parts of the hull had buckled, the bow was mostly intact. The collision with
the ocean floor forced water out of Titanic through the hull below the well deck. One of the steel covers (reportedly
weighing approximately ten tonnes) was blown off the side of the hull. The bow is still under tension, in particular
the heavily damaged and partially collapsed decks.
The stern section was in much worse condition, and appeared to have been torn apart during its descent. Unlike the bow
section, which was flooded with water before it sank, it is likely that the stern section sank with a significant
volume of air trapped inside it. As it sank, the external water pressure increased but the pressure of the trapped
air could not follow suit due to the many air pockets in relatively sealed sections. Therefore, some areas of the
stern section's hull experienced a large pressure differential between outside and inside which possibly caused an
implosion. Further damage was caused by the sudden impact of hitting the seabed; with little structural integrity
left, the decks collapsed as the stern hit.
Surrounding the wreck is a large debris field with pieces of the ship, furniture, dinnerware and personal items
scattered over one square mile (2.6 km˛). Softer materials, like wood, carpet and human remains were devoured by
undersea organisms.
Dr. Ballard and his team did not bring up any artefacts from the site, considering this to be tantamount to grave
robbing. Under international maritime law, however, the recovery of artefacts is necessary to establish salvage
rights to a shipwreck. In the years after the find, Titanic has been the object of a number of court cases concerning
ownership of artefacts and the wreck site itself. In 1994, RMS Titanic Inc. was awarded ownership and salvaging rights
of the wreck, even though RMS Titanic Inc. and other salvaging expeditions have been criticized for taking items from
the wreck.
Approximately 6,000 artefacts have been removed from the wreck. Many of these were put on display at the National
Maritime Museum in Greenwich, England, and later as part of a travelling museum exhibit.
Current condition of the wreck
Many scientists, including Robert Ballard, are concerned that visits by tourists in submersibles and the recovery of
artefacts are hastening the decay of the wreck. Underwater microbes have been eating away at Titanic's iron since the
ship sank, but because of the extra damage visitors have caused, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
estimates that "the hull and structure of the ship may collapse to the ocean floor within the next 50 years."
Ballard's book Return to Titanic, published by the National Geographic Society, includes photographs depicting the
deterioration of the promenade deck and damage caused by submersibles landing on the ship. The mast has almost
completely deteriorated and has been stripped of its bell and brass light. Other damage includes a gash on the bow
section where block letters once spelled Titanic, part of the brass telemotor which once held the ship's wooden
wheel is now twisted and the crows nest has now completely deteriorated.
Ownership and litigation
Titanic's rediscovery in 1985 launched a debate over ownership of the wreck and the valuable items inside. On 7 June
1994, RMS Titanic Inc., a subsidiary of Premier Exhibitions Inc., was awarded ownership and salvaging rights by the
United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia. (See Admiralty law) Since 1987, RMS Titanic Inc.
and its predecessors have conducted seven expeditions and salvaged over 5,500 historic objects. The biggest single
recovered object was a 17-ton section of the hull, recovered in 1998. Many of these items are part of travelling
museum exhibitions.
In 1993, a French administrator in the Office of Maritime Affairs of the Ministry of Equipment, Transportation, and
Tourism awarded RMS Titanic Inc.'s predecessor title to the relics recovered in 1987.
In a motion filed on 12 February 2004, RMS Titanic Inc. requested that the district court enter an order awarding it
"title to all the artefacts (including portions of the hull) which are the subject of this action pursuant to the Law
of Finds" or, in the alternative, a salvage award in the amount of $225 million. RMS Titanic Inc. excluded from its
motion any claim for an award of title to the objects recovered in 1987, but it did request that the district court
declare that, based on the French administrative action, "the artifacts raised during the 1987 expedition are
independently owned by RMST." Following a hearing, the district court entered an order dated 2 July 2004, in which
it refused to grant comity and recognize the 1993 decision of the French administrator, and rejected RMS Titanic Inc.'s
claim that it should be awarded title to the items recovered since 1993 under the Maritime Law of Finds.
RMS Titanic Inc. appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit. In its decision of 31 January
2006 the court recognized "explicitly the appropriateness of applying maritime salvage law to historic wrecks such as
that of Titanic" and denied the application of the Maritime Law of Finds. The court also ruled that the district court
lacked jurisdiction over the "1987 artifacts", and therefore vacated that part of the court's 2 July 2004 order. In
other words, according to this decision, RMS Titanic Inc. has ownership title to the objects awarded in the French
decision (valued $16.5 million earlier) and continues to be salver-in-possession of the Titanic wreck. The Court of
Appeals remanded the case to the District Court to determine the salvage award ($225 million requested by RMS Titanic
Inc.).
Possible factors in the sinking
The iceberg buckled Titanic's hull allowing water to flow into the shipOriginally, historians thought the iceberg had
cut a gash into Titanic's hull. Since the part of the ship that the iceberg damaged is now buried, scientists used sonar
to examine the area and discovered the iceberg had caused the hull to buckle, allowing water to enter Titanic between
her steel plates.
Steel plates and iron rivets
A detailed analysis of small pieces of the steel plating from the Titanic's wreck hull found that it was of a
metallurgy that loses its elasticity and becomes brittle in cold or icy water, leaving it vulnerable to dent-induced
ruptures. The pieces of steel were found to have very high content of phosphorus and sulphur (4x and 2x respectively,
compared to modern steel), with manganese-sulphur ratio of 6.8:1 (compare with over 200:1 ratio for modern steels).
High content of phosphorus initiates fractures, sulphur forms grains of iron sulphide that facilitate propagation of
cracks, and lack of manganese makes the steel less ductile. The recovered samples were found to be undergoing
ductile-brittle transition in temperatures of 32 degreesC (for longitudinal samples) and 56 degreesC (for transversal
samples—compare with transition temperature of -27 degreesC common for modern steels—modern steel would became so
brittle in between -60 and -70 degreesC). The anisotropy was likely caused by hot rolling influencing the orientation
of the sulphide stringer inclusions. The steel was probably produced in the acid-lined, open-hearth furnaces in
Glasgow, which would explain the high content of P and S, even for the times.
Another factor was the rivets holding the hull together, which were much more fragile than once thought. From 48
rivets recovered from the hulk of the Titanic, scientists found many to be riddled with high concentrations of slag.
A glassy residue of smelting, slag can make rivets brittle and prone to fracture. Records from the archive of the
builder show that the ship's builder ordered No. 3 iron bar, known as "best" — not No. 4, known as "best-best," for
its rivets, although shipbuilders at that time typically used No. 4 iron for rivets. The company also had shortages
of skilled riveters, particularly important for hand riveting, which took great skill: the iron had to be heated to a
precise colour and shaped by the right combination of hammer blows. The company used steel rivets, which were stronger
and could be installed by machine, on the central hull, where stresses were expected to be greatest, using iron rivets
for the stern and bow. Rivets of "best best" iron had a tensile strength approximately 80% of that of steel, "best"
iron some 73%.
Rudder and turning ability
View of the stern and rudder of one of the Olympic-class ships in dry-dock.Although Titanic's rudder met the mandated
dimensional requirements for a ship her size, the rudder's design was hardly state-of-the-art. According to research by
BBC History: "Her stern, with its high graceful counter and long thin rudder, was an exact copy of an 18th-century
sailing ship...a perfect example of the lack of technical development. Compared with the rudder design of the Cunarders,
Titanic's was a fraction of the size. No account was made for advances in scale and little thought was given to how a
ship, 852 feet in length, might turn in an emergency or avoid collision with an iceberg. This was Titanic's Achilles
heel." A more objective assessment of the rudder provision compares it with the legal requirement of the time: the area
had to be within a range of 1.5% and 5% of the hull's underwater profile and, at 1.9%, the Titanic was at the low end
of the range. However, the tall rudder design was more effective at the vessel's designed cruising speed; short, square
rudders were more suitable for low-speed manoeuvring.
Perhaps more fatal to the design of the Titanic was her triple screw engine configuration, which had reciprocating
steam engines driving her wing propellers, and a steam turbine driving her centre propeller. The reciprocating engines
were reversible, while the turbine was not. According to subsequent evidence from Fourth Officer Joseph Boxhall, who
entered the bridge just after the collision, First Officer Murdoch had set the engine room telegraph to reverse the
engines to avoid the iceberg, thus handicapping the turning ability of the ship. Because the centre turbine could not
reverse during the "full speed astern" manoeuvre, it was simply stopped. Since the centre propeller was positioned
forward of the ship's rudder, the effectiveness of that rudder would have been greatly reduced: had Murdoch simply
turned the ship while maintaining her forward speed, the Titanic might have missed the iceberg with metres to spare.
Another survivor, greaser Frederick Scott, gave contrary evidence: he recalled that at his station in the engine room
all four sets of telegraphs had changed to "Stop", but not until after the collision.
Iceberg impact
It has been speculated that the ship could have been saved if she had rammed the iceberg head on. It is hypothesised
that if Titanic had not altered her course at all and instead collided head first with the iceberg, the impact would
have been taken by the naturally stronger bow of the hull and damage would only have affected the first or, at most,
first two compartments. This would have disabled her severely, and possibly caused casualties among the passengers
near the front of the ship, but would not likely have resulted in sinking since Titanic was designed to float with
the first four compartments flooded. Instead, the glancing blow to the starboard side of the ship caused buckling in
the hull plates along the first five compartments, more than the ship's designers had allowed for.
Alternative theories
A number of alternative theories diverging from the standard explanation for the Titanic's demise have been brought
orth since shortly after the sinking. Some of these include a coal fire aboard ship or the Titanic hitting pack ice
rather than an iceberg. Also, the notion has been advanced that it was the White Star Lines nearly identical ship,
RMS Olympic, and not Titanic that was sunk as part of an insurance scam. In the realm of the supernatural, it has
been proposed that the Titanic sank due to a mummy's curse.
Legends and myths regarding the RMS Titanic
Unsinkable
Contrary to popular mythology, the Titanic was never described as "unsinkable", without qualification, until after
she sank. There are three trade publications (one of which was probably never published) that describe the Titanic as
unsinkable, prior to its sinking, but they all qualify the claim, either with the word practically or with the phrase
"as far as possible". There is no evidence that the notion of the Titanic's unsinkability had entered public
consciousness until after the sinking.
The first unqualified assertion of the Titanic's unsinkability appears the day after the tragedy (on the 16th of April
1912), in the New York Times, which quotes Philip A. S. Franklin, vice president of the White Star Line as saying, when
informed of the tragedy, " I thought her unsinkable and I based by opinion on the best expert advice available. I do not
understand it."
This comment was seized upon by the press and the idea that the White Star Line had previously declared the Titanic to
be unsinkable (without qualification) gained immediate and widespread currency.
David Sarnoff, wireless reports and the use of SOS
An often-quoted story that has been blurred between fact and fiction states that the first person to receive news of the
sinking was David Sarnoff, who would later found media giant RCA. In modified versions of this legend, Sarnoff was not the
first to hear the news (though Sarnoff willingly promoted this notion), but he and others did staff the Marconi wireless
station (telegraph) atop the Wanamaker Department Store in New York City, and for three days, relayed news of the disaster
and names of survivors to people waiting outside. However, even this version lacks support in contemporary accounts. No
newspapers of the time, for example, mention Sarnoff. Given the absence of primary evidence, the story of Sarnoff should
be properly regarded as a legend.
Despite popular belief, the sinking of Titanic was not the first time the internationally recognised Morse code distress
signal "SOS" was used. The SOS signal was first proposed at the International Conference on Wireless Communication at Sea
in Berlin in 1906. It was ratified by the international community in 1908 and had been in widespread use since then. The
SOS signal was, however, rarely used by British wireless operators, who preferred the older CQD code. First Wireless
Operator Jack Phillips began transmitting CQD until Second Wireless Operator Harold Bride suggested half jokingly, "Send
SOS; it's the new call, and this may be your last chance to send it." Phillips, who later died, then began to intersperse
SOS with the traditional CQD call.
Titanic's band
One of the most famous stories of Titanic is of the band. On 15 April Titanic's eight-member band, led by Wallace
Hartley, had assembled in the first-class lounge in an effort to keep passengers calm and upbeat. Later they moved
on to the forward half of the boat deck. The band continued playing music even when it became apparent the ship was
going to sink.
None of the band members survived the sinking, and there has been much speculation about what their last song was.
An alleged Canadian witness, Mrs. Vera Dick, said the final song played was the hymn "Nearer, My God, to Thee." Hartley
reportedly said to a friend if he was on a sinking ship "Nearer, My God, to Thee" would be one of the songs he would
play.
But Walter Lord's book A Night to Remember popularised wireless operator Harold Bride’s account that he heard the song
"Autumn" before the ship sank. It is considered Bride either meant the hymn called "Autumn" or "Songe d'Automne," a
popular song at the time. Bride is the only witness who was close enough to the band, at the moment the ship went down,
to be considered reliable—Mrs. Dick had left by lifeboat an hour and 20 minutes earlier and could not possibly have
heard the band's final moments. The notion that the band played "Nearer, My God, to Thee" as their swan song, is probably
a myth originating from the wrecking of the SS Valencia, which had received wide press coverage in Canada in
1906.
The "Titanic curse"
When Titanic sank, claims were made that a curse existed on the ship. The press quickly linked the "Titanic curse"
with the White Star Line practice of not christening their ships (notwithstanding the opening scene of the film, A
Night to Remember).
One of the most widely spread legends linked directly into the sectarianism of the city of Belfast, where the ship
was built. It was suggested that the ship was given the number 390904 which, when read backwards as reflected by the
water's surface, was claimed to spell 'no pope', a sectarian slogan attacking Roman Catholics that was (and is) widely
used provocatively by extreme Protestants in Northern Ireland, where the ship was built. In the extreme sectarianism
of north-east Ireland (Northern Ireland itself did not exist until 1920), the ship's sinking, though mourned, was
alleged to be on account of the sectarian anti-Catholicism of her manufacturers, the Harland and Wolff company, which
had an almost exclusively Protestant workforce and an alleged record of hostility towards Catholics. (Harland and Wolff
did have a record of hiring few Catholics; whether that was through policy or because the company's shipyard in Belfast's
bay was located in almost exclusively Protestant East Belfast — through which few Catholics would dare to travel — or a
mixture of both, is a matter of dispute.)
The 'no pope' story is in fact an urban legend, with no basis in fact. RMS Olympic and Titanic were assigned the yard
numbers 400 and 401 respectively. The source of the story may have been from reports by dockworkers in Queenstown (Cobh)
of anti-Catholic graffiti that they found on Titanic's coalbunkers when they were loading coal.
Career:
- Name: RMS Titanic
- Owner: White Star Line
- Port of Registry: Liverpool
- Route: Southampton to New York City
- Builder: Harland and Wolff yards in Belfast, UK
- Yard number: 401
- Laid down: 31 March 1909
- Launched: 31 May 1911
- Christened: Not christened
- Completed: 31 March 1912
- Maiden voyage: 10 April 1912
- Identification: Radio Callsign "MGY"
- Official Vessel Number: 131428
- Fate: Sank after hitting an iceberg on 15 April 1912
General characteristics:
- Class and type: Olympic-class ocean liner
- Tonnage: 46,328 gross register tons (GRT)
- Displacement: 52,310 tons
- Length: 882 ft 9 in (269.1 m)
- Beam: 92 ft 6 in (28.2 m)
- Height: 175 ft (53.3 m) (Keel to top of funnels)
- Draught: 34 ft 7 in (10.5 m)
- Decks: 9 (Lettered A through G with boilers below)
- Installed power: 24 double-ended (six furnace) and 5 single-ended (three furnace) Scotch-marine-boilers
- Two four-cylinder reciprocating triple-expansion steam engines each producing 15,000 hp for the two
outboard wing propellers at 75 revolutions per minute
- One low-pressure turbine producing 16,000 hp
- Total power: 46,000 HP (design) - 59,000 HP (maximum)
Propulsion:
- Two bronze triple-blade wing propellers
- One bronze quadruple-blade centre propeller.
Speed:
- 21 knots (39 km/h/24 mph)
- 23 knots (43 km/h) (maximum)
Capacity:
- Passengers and crew (fully loaded): 3547
- Staterooms (840 total):
- First Class: 416
- Second Class: 162
- Third Class: 262
- plus 40 open berthing areas
See also:
RMS Mauretania - 1906.
RMS Titanic - 1911.
Europa - 1928.
Bremen - 1929.
SS Normandie - 1932.
RMS Queen Mary - 1934.
RMS Queen Elizabeth - 1938.
SS America - 1940.
RMS Oceanic - 1951.
SS United States - 1952.
SS France - 1960.
RMS Queen Elizabeth 2 - 1967.
RMS Queen Mary 2 - 2003.
MS Oasis of the Seas - 2009.